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ArabianJournalforScienceandEngineering(2025)50:10465–10473https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-024-09946-yRESEARCH ARTICLE-PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGCross-LinkedPoly(Styrene-Co-Divinylbenzene)-CoatedQuartzandKaoliniteProppantsForHydraulicFracturingApplicationsIhsan Nuri Akku¸ s 1 · Yuksel Akinay 1 · Adem Zengin 2 · Hilal Çelik Kazici 2Received:11October2024/Accepted:26December2024/Publishedonline:11January2025©TheAuthor(s)2025AbstractThe hydraulic fracturing operation, used as a production process in shale gas and coalbed methane reservoirs in the oiland natural gas industry, consists of fracturing f l uid, proppant, and many other chemicals. This study successfully producedhydraulic fracturing proppants based on quartz and kaolinite minerals using divinyl benzene cross-linked styrene polymerwithaninsitususpensionpolymerizationmethod.Morphologicalanalysisofthepreparedproppantsconf i rmedtheirsphericalstructure and the sphericity of quartz and kaolinite proppants were determined as 0.9. The polymer shells of the preparedproppantsshowedthermalresistanceupto375°Candthendecomposedbetween375°Cand575°C.Asaresultofmechanicaltests,quartzproppantsshowedacrushresistanceof14.08%underaloadof18,000psi.Similarly,acrushresistanceof14.28%for kaolinite proppants was determined under a load of 15,000 psi. The apparent densities of quartz and kaolinite proppantswere determined as 1.635 g/cm 3 and 1.365 g/cm 3 , respectively. However, quartz proppants mostly display brittle breakagebehavior, while kaolinite proppants are plastically deformed under the applied load.Keywords Kaolinite · Quartz · Proppant · Styrene · Microparticles1 IntroductionIncreasing energy demands in recent years and the deple-tion of conventional oil and natural gas wells have led theoil industry to turn its attention to unconventional reservoirssuch as shale gas and oil, tight oil and gas oil sands, coalbedmethane, and gas hydrates, which have characteristics suchas low permeability, low porosity, and weak connectivity[1, 2]. Hydraulic fracturing is a widely used method forhydrocarbon-derived production in unconventional oil, gas,shale gas, gas hydrate, tight oil, and gas reservoirs [3].B Yuksel Akinayyukselakinay@yyu.edu.trB Adem Zenginademzengin@yyu.edu.trIhsan Nuri Akku¸ sihsannuriakkus@yyu.edu.trHilal Çelik Kazicihilalkazici@yyu.edu.tr1Engineering Faculty, Mining Engineering, Van Yuzuncu YilUniversity, Van, Turkey2Faculty of Science, Chemistry Department, Van Yuzuncu YilUniversity, Van, TurkeyHydraulic fracturing takes place in four stages. Firstly, high-viscosity fracturing f l uid with low f i ltration loss is sent fromthe wellbore to the reservoir at high pressure. Secondly,cracks directed depending on the stress regime are formedin a certain width in the reservoir due to the high-pressureeffect. In the third stage, hydraulic fracturing f l uid and prop-pant (PRP) are injected into the well to keep cracks open. Inthef i nalstage,fracturef l uidref l uxoccurs,andfractureswitha certain conductivity are formed [4, 5].Proppant, which directly affects the success rate ofhydraulic fracturing technology, is the basic material ofhydraulic fracturing technology. Conventional proppantscannot meet the performance requirements in uncon-ventional reservoirs characterized by high temperatureand high pressure. Zhang et al. produced quartz sand-based polyacrylamide-modif i ed self-suspended proppantwith excellent suspension stability, temperature, and saltresistance. They explained that quartz sand was successfullymodif i ed based on the results of wettability tests, surfacemorphology, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopyanalyses. The prepared proppant exhibited excellent temper-ature and salinity resistance by being suspended in harshtemperature and salinity environments [6]. Recently, many123