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RESEARCHArchaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2026) 18:180 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-026-02533-2 K. Rebay-Salisburykatharina.rebay-salisbury@univie.ac.atL. Waltenbergerlukas.waltenberger@mf.vu.lt1 Center for Human Bioarchaeology and Paleogenetics, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, ?iurlionis 21, Vilnius 013101, Lithuania2 Austrian Archaeological Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Dominikanerbastei 16, Vienna 1010, Austria3 Department of Prehistory and Historical Archaeology, University of Vienna, Franz-Klein-Gasse 1, Vienna 1190, Austria4 Archaeology of Africa and Anthropology (ARCAN), University of Geneva, 30 quai E. Ansermet, Geneva 1205, Switzerland5 Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, Vienna 1030, Austria6 Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research, Martinstraße 12, Klosterneuburg 3400, Austria7 Department of Anthropology, Natural History Museum, Burgring 7, Vienna 1010, AustriaAbstractIt is well known that parity af f ects the human skeleton through biomechanical strain during pregnancy and birth, lacta-tion, and sexual steroid hormone expression. Pelvic features are bony exostoses and lesions found on the pelvis and are frequently interpreted as parturition scars, although the direct causal factors remain unclear. In this study, we created a weighted pelvic pattern index (PPI) by combining all pelvic features (preauricular sulcus, dorsal pubic pitting, extended pubic tubercle, ventral pubic pitting & exostoses, margo auricularis groove, sacral preauricular extension & notch) to sta-tistically evaluate its association with parity in three samples (one modern, and two from the 19th century). The PPI was signif i cantly associated with parity and age at death. A pelvis shape analysis revealed an association with an increase in pelvic width. However, bone modelling in older women weakened the association of the PPI with parity. The PPI showed dif f erences between the modern and historical samples, suggesting that factors such as lifestyle and obstetrical practices af f ect the relationship between the PPI and actual parity. We propose the PPI as a useful tool for assessing parity, but the predictive accuracy may vary across populations. We present a software tool for an easy application of the PPI in bioar-cheological and anthropological studies.Keywords Parturition scars · Preauricular sulcus · Dorsal pubic pitting · Obstructed birth · PregnancyReceived: 9 July 2025 / Accepted: 6 July 2026© The Author(s) 2026The invisible evidence of birth: evaluating the relationship between pelvic shape and parity with a pelvic pattern indexL. Waltenberger 1,2  · K. Rebay-Salisbury 2,3  · J. Desideri 4  · P. Mitteroecker 5,6  · M. Spannagl-Steiner 7  · D. Pany-Kucera 7IntroductionThe estimation of parity based on the human skeleton pro-vides crucial data for demographic studies in archaeology and the forensic sciences. It is well documented that preg-nancy and parturition exert both direct and indirect ef f ects on the human skeleton. For example, sexual maturation and the secretion of steroid hormones during puberty gives rise to the sexual dif f erences in the bony pelvis (Fischer and Mitteroecker 2017; Rogol et al. 2002; Wells 2007). During pregnancy, further hormones, such as relaxin, are secreted. This hormone softens pelvic ligaments and allows for an easier birth process (Cunningham et al. 2014; Grunstra et al. 2019; Jockenhövel 1989; Owens et al. 2002). Addition-ally, the weight of the gravid uterus alters the mother’s pos-ture during gait (hyperlordosis of the lumbar spine), which af f ects the biomechanics of the human skeleton (Amiel 1981; Hagen 1974; Ritchie 2003; Whitcome et al. 2007) and increases the risk of pelvic and back pain. The birth process also has long-term impacts on the female body, including