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RESEARCHProgress in Additive Manufacturinghttps://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-026-01745-1 Hao Wangwanghao@jiu.ac.jp Akihiko Chibaakihiko.chiba.d3@tohoku.ac.jpKazuki Itoda09itokazu15@gmail.comKenta Yamanakakenta.yamanaka.c5@tohoku.ac.jpKenta Aoyagikenta.aoyagi.e7@tohoku.ac.jpTadashi Fujiedatafujieda@mat.shimane-u.ac.jpYunping Lilyping@csu.edu.cn1 Co-Creation Institute for Advanced Materials, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan2 New Industry Creation Hatchery Center (NICHe), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan3 Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan4 Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan5 State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha, ChinaAbstractThis study demonstrates the potential of electron beam powder bed fusion (PBF-EB) for the fabrication of low-carbon S30C steel with superior strength and ductility. In addition to investigating the ef f ect of preheating temperature on micro-structural evolution, we examined the ef f ect of subsequent quenching and tempering treatments. At 1033 K, equiaxed α-Fe grains dominated, whereas at 1173 K, elongated grains and side plates aligned with the build direction were more prevalent, resulting in a pronounced < 101 > texture. These microstructural features introduced anisotropy along the build direction, which was ef f ectively mitigated by tempering. Compared with conventionally processed low-carbon S30C steel, the additively manufactured specimens exhibited higher yield and tensile strengths and improved ductility, achieving an ultrahigh tensile strength of 1914 MPa in the as-quenched state, while the as-tempered state exhibited an elongation of ~ 17% with a tensile strength of ~ 886 MPa. The exceptional mechanical performance is attributed to the ref i ned mar-tensitic structures and high dislocation density induced by the PBF-EB process. These fi ndings highlight the capability of PBF-EB to produce structural carbon steels with tunable properties by controlling the process parameters, thereby of f ering a cost-ef f ective route for the industrial-scale additive manufacturing of steels.Keywords Powder bed fusion-electron beam · Low-carbon steel · S30C steel · Microstructure evolution · Mechanical anisotropyReceived: 28 September 2025 / Accepted: 27 April 2026© The Author(s) 2026Low-carbon S30C steel with superior strength and ductility fabricated by powder bed fusion-electron beamHao Wang 1,2  · Kazuki Itoda 3  · Kenta Yamanaka 4  · Kenta Aoyagi 4  · Tadashi Fujieda 1  · Yunping Li 5  · Akihiko Chiba 1,2characteristics enable control over strength, toughness, and hardness through heat treatment [8–12]. Although structural carbon steels exhibit favorable compatibility with PBF in terms of their phase-transformable behavior and thermal processability, several challenges remain in their practical implementation. The use of laser beam-based PBF (PBF-LB) to fabricate carbon steels is challenging because high 1 IntroductionSteel is an essential structural material in the automotive, construction, and energy industries because of its excellent mechanical properties and cost-ef f ectiveness [1–7]. Struc-tural carbon steels can be additively manufactured using powder bed fusion (PBF) because their phase transformation